Recent surveys of computer crime victims indicate that the typical computer criminal is an employee, not an outsider trying to "hack" into the system. In trying to explain this paradox, comparisons are made with earlier historical periods when highwaymen and train robbers were also viewed by law enforcement as criminals but considered by their peers as folk heroes. These modem day "electronic highwaymen" are innovative deviants who prey on the inherent vulnerabilities of our pioneering (and sometimes unpopular) communication and information corporations. The social construction of "hackers" as the principal focus of computer criminalization is explained by examining the specific characteristics of the victims, offenses, offenders, and law enforcement agencies within the scope of the larger computer and information technology revolution .
Richard C. Hollinger. Hackers: Computer Heroes or Electronic Highwaymen? SIGCAS Comput. Soc., 21(1):6–17, June 1991. doi:10.1145/122246.122248.
@article{hollinger_hackers_1991,
abstract = {In his book, Hackers: Heroes of the Computer Revolution (Doubleday, 1984), Steven Levy documents the linguistic evolution of the word "hacker." He argues that among computer aficionados the term has been long used to express respect and admiration for another's superior computer programming expertise. In the last ten years (particularly among members of the law enforcement community), however, the concept has taken on an extremely negative connotation and is regularly used to refer to electronic vandals and computer criminals. Yet, recent surveys of computer crime victims indicate that the typical computer criminal is an employee, not an outsider trying to "hack" into the system. In trying to explain this paradox, comparisons are made with earlier historical periods when highwaymen and train robbers were also viewed by law enforcement as criminals but considered by their peers as folk heroes. These modern day "electronic highwaymen" are innovative deviants who prey on the inherent vulnerabilities of our pioneering (and sometimes unpopular) communication and information corporations. The social construction of "hackers" as the principal focus of computer criminalization is explained by examining the specific characteristics of the victims, offenses, offenders, and law enforcement agencies within the scope of the larger computer and information technology revolution.},
author = {Hollinger, Richard C.},
doi = {10.1145/122246.122248},
issn = {0095-2737},
journal = {SIGCAS Comput. Soc.},
month = {June},
number = {1},
pages = {6--17},
shorttitle = {Hackers},
title = {Hackers: {{Computer Heroes}} or {{Electronic Highwaymen}}?},
volume = {21},
year = {1991}
}